INTRODUCTION: REFLECTIONS ON AUTOMATION
Historical Developments 1
Systems Engineering 3
Social Implications 4
Education and Automation 5
Production and Distribution 6
Conclusion 7
References 8
1. AUTOMATION IN BUSINESS AND. INDUSTRY 9
1.1 The Present Status of Our Technology 9
1.2 The Need in Business and Industry 11
1.3 Technical Problems 12
1.4 New Tools for Automation 13
1.5 Conclusion 17
2. THE LANGUAGE OF AUTOMATION
2.1 Language and Mental Images 18
2.2 The Meaning of Automation 20
2.3 The Need for a New Word 22
2.4 The Similarity of Processes 23
2.5 Cross Currents between Office and Factory
2.6 Conclusions 24
2.7 Glossary of Terminology 25
2.7.1 General Definitions 25
2.7.2 Computers, Simulators, Trainers
2.7.3 Digital Computers 26
2.7.4 Computer and Data Processor Programming
2.7.5 Data-Processing Operations 28
2.7.6 Tabulating Equipment 29
2.7.7 Automatic or Feedback Control Systems 31
2.8 References on Terminology 32
2.8.1 Control Systems 32
2.8.2 Computers and Data Processing 32
2.8.3 Magazines 32
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATION
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 The Roles of Science, Mathematics, and Engineering 36
3.3 Design of an Automatic System 37
3.3.1 Military Contributions 37
3.3.2 Automatic Subsystems 37
3.3.3 Elements 37
3.3.4 A Design Method 37
3.3.5 Automation for Control 39
3.4 Conclusion 39
3.5 References 39
4. FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS
4.1 Introduction 41
4.1.1 Nature of Problem 42
4.1.2 Description of Feedback Control System 44
4.1.3 Requirements of Stability and Accuracy 46
4.1.4 Mathematical Basis for Stability 47
4.1.5 Features of Feedback Control System Performance 48
4.2 Feedback Control System Problems 51
4.2.1 Mathematical Nature of Cqntrol System Elements 51
4.2.2 Controlled-Variable Response from Constant Actuating
Error 55
4.2.3 Stability of Feedback Control Systems 57
4.2.4 Frequency Response 64
4.2.5 Transient Response 66
4.2.6 . Effe6t of Disturbances to Control Systems 69
4.3 Multiple Control Systems 71
4.3.1 System Synthesis 71
4.3.2 System Integration and Interconnection 72
4.4 Examples of Automation in Industry 75
4.4.1 Position Tracer Controls 76
4.4.2 Record Playback Control 80
4.4.3 Steel Mill Controls 83
4.4.4 . Voltage Regulation 84
4.4.5 Magnetic Loop Control 85
4.5 Summary 87
4.6 References 87
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5. BASIC CONCEPTS OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL 89
5.1 Basic Concepts of Industrial Instrumentation 89
5.1.1 Definition of Industrial Instruments 89 '
5.1.2 The Concept of "Translators" 89 "
5.1.3 Industrial versus Scie~tific Instruments. 90
5.1.4 Instrument Application and Accuracy 91
5.1.5 Different Needs for Different Operators 92
5.2 The Translator Chart 93
5.2.1 Symbolic Translator Equations 95
5.2.2 Instruments and Controls in the Translator Chart 96
5.2.3 Electrical Inputs or Outputs 97
5.3 The Operator Chart 97
5.4 New Pack~ged Tools of the Modern Designer 99
5.4.1 Scanning Techniques 104
5.4.2 Decision Elements 106
5.5 The Significance of Measurements 108
5.5.1 Correlation between Measured Variable and Desired
Property 108
5.5.2 Statistical Instruments 111
5.6 Automation in Process Control 113
5.6.1 The Problem of Measuring Customer Acceptance 114
5.6.2 The Raw-Material and the Accounting Loop 116
5.6.3 The Management Loop 116
5.6.4 The Inventory Control Problem 117
5.1 The Basic Control Loop 117
5.1.1 Typical Amplifiers 119
5.1.2 The Design of a Typical Proportional Controller 122
5.1.3 Program Control 128
5.1.4 The Two-Time Scale Computer 128 '
5.8 Conclusion 130
5.9 References 130
6. ANALOG COMPUTERS 132
6.1 Introduction 132
6.2 Fundamentals of Analog Computation 139
6.3 ComputiJ;lg Equipment 149
6.3.1 Th~ Feedback Amplifier 149
6.3.2 Passive Networks 151
6.3.3 Linear Potentiometer 154
6.3.4 Multiplier 155
6.3.5 Resolvers 160
6.3.6 Function Generators 162
6.3.1 Recorders 166
6.4 An Autopilot Problem 166
6.5 Selected Techniques 169
6.5.1 Transfer Functions 169
6.5.2 Implicit-Function Technique 170
6.5.3 Differential Equations 172
6.5.4 Linear Simultaneous Algebraic Equations 173
6.6 Developments and Requirements 174
6.7 References 176
7. DIGITAL COMPUTERS 178
7.1 Introduction 178
7.2 Analog versus Digital 178
7.3 The Typical Digital Computer 180
7.3.1 Terminology 181
7.4 Sample Program 182
7.5 Contrast between the Analog and Digital System 183
7.6 Machine Decisions 184
7.6.1 Instruction Classes 185
7.6.2 Distinguishing Features of the Digital System' 185
7.6.3 Subroutines 186
7.7 Classification Features 186
7.8 Size and Reliability 187
7.9 Number Systems 189
7.10 Logical Algebra 191
7.11 Basic Building Blocks 192
7.11.1 The Flip-flop 193,
7.11.2 Gates 195
7.12 Arithmetic Section 197
7.13 The Storage 199
7.14 The Control Section 204
7.15 The Input-Output Section 206
7.16 The Digital Differential Analyzer 207
7.17 Applications 208
7.18 The Future 209
7.19 References 209
8. DATA PROCESSING
8.1 The Economic Justification for Data-Processing Equipment' 212
8.1.1 The Economic Basis for Data Processing 212
8.1.2 A Handy Yardstick ,212
8.1.3 Examples for Small Machines 213
8.1.4 Semiautomation by Punched Cards 214 .. ' '1 ,
8.1.5 Transition to Automation through Large dom~uters 215
8.1.6 The First Large Automatic Digital Computer ~ 216
8.1.7 Automatic Computation by Electronics~the E~IAC 217
8.1.8 The Fundamental Economics of Electronic Computation 218
8.1.9 Fields of Application 218
8.2 Business and Scientific Computer Requirements 219
8.2.1 Economic Basis Common to Business and Scientific
Applications 219
8.2.2 The Computer-Limited Problem 220
8.2.3 Business Problems Require Fast Input-Output Facility,
Input-Output-Limited Applications 221
8.2.4 The Complete Spectrum of Applications 222
8.2.5 How Scientific and Business Problems Converge 224
8.3 The Basic Requirements on Equipment for Automatic Data
Processing in Business and Industry 226
8.3.1 Fast-Access, Reusable Storage 226
8.3.2 Common Storage of Data and Instructions 227
8.4 Examples of Coding for Data Processing 228
8.4.1 A Simplified Single-Address Code 228
8.4.2 Straight-Line Coding 229
8.4.3 Modification of Instructions to Form Iterative Loops 230
8.4.4 Generation of Straight-Line Coding 233 ',I
8.4.5 Storage Requirements versus Execution Time 233
8.4.6 Compromise Coding 234
8.5 Input-Output Considerations-Tape Strategy 235
8.5.1 Cards and Tapes for Sorting and Merging 235
8.5.2 Tape Requirements for Sequencing Data 236
8.5.3 Overlapping Input-Output, Computation, and Rewind Times 238
8.5.4 An Example of Tape Strategy in Merging 239
8.6 Reliability and Error Control Are Basic to System Design 243
8.6.1 Machine Faults and Human Mistakes 243
8.6.2 Machine Reliability and Checking 243
8.6.3 Controlling Human Mistakes 244
8.7 Kind of Savings Possible through Use of Automatic Electronic
Data-Processing Systems 245
8.7.1 Economic Advantages Do ' Not Come from Speed Alone 245
8.7.2 Savings Come from High Reliability and Freedom from
Human Mistakes 246
8.7.3 Savings Come from Improved Systems and Procedures 246
8.7.4 Savings by Automatic Coding 247
8.7.5 Major Savings in New Applications 249
8.8 References 250 , "
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9. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION UNITS 251
9.1 The Need for Conversion 251
9.2 Some Fundamentals of Analog-to-Digital Converters 253
9.3 Specification of Conversion Units 254
9.3.1 Analog Input 254
9.3.2 Range 255
9.3.3 Sampling Rate 255
9.3.4 Number of Channels 255
9.3.5 Type of Read-out 256
9.3.6 Number System 256
9.3.7 Number of Digits 257
9.4 Some Typical Examples 01 Analog-to-Digital Converters 257
9.4.1 Converters That Count . 258
9.4.2 Converters That Compar~ 259
9.4.3 Converters That Read 261
9.5 Some Specific Examples of the Use of Analog-to-Digital
Converters ' 264
9.5.1 Problem :: Time Recording 264
9.5.2 Problem : Monitoring Oil Storage Tanks 265
9.5.3 Problem: Seismographic Work, 265
9.5.4 Problem: Analysis of Graphic Records 266
9.5.5 Problem: Process Control Logging 267
9.6 Co?-trol Applications ,268
9.7 Does This Facet of Automation Apply to Me? 269
9.8 Appendix: Some Mahufacturers of Analog-to-Digital Converters 270
9.9 References 271 \
10. INPUT-OUTPUT EQUIPMENT 274
10.1 Introduction and History 274
10.2 Recording Media 278
10.3 Buffering and Computer Control 285
10.4 Reading and Recording Equipment 288
10.5 Off-Line Equip'ment 292
10.6 Nonmechanica.l Printers 296
10.7 Conclusions 300 "
10.8 References 301
11. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC DATA-PROCESSING MACHINES
11.1 Introduction 303
11.1.1 Kinds of Data-Processing Applications 303
11.1.2 Classes of Data-Processing Machines 304
11.2 Electronic Data-Processing Machines in Business 304
11.2.1 Fundamental Requirements for Automation in Data
Processing 306
11.2.2 The Growth of Office Automation 306
11.2.3 Data Recording 307
11.2.4 Characteristi~s of an Efficient Data-Processing System 308
11.2.5 Characteristics of the Business Problem 308
11.3 Examples of Applications of Large-Scale Data-Processing'
Machines 310
11.3.1 Company A: Life Insurance Policy Operations 310
11.3.2 Company B: 4utomotive Spare-Parts Stock Control 318
11.3.3 Company C: Public-Utility Billing and Cash Accounting 323
11.4 Conclusion 331
11.5 References 332
12. AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF FLIGHT
12.1 Introduction 333
12.1.1 General 333
12.1.2 The Specifi~ Flight Control Problem 335
12.2 Characteristic Motions of the Airframe 336
12.3 Equipment Limitations and Environments Imposed by the
Airframe 342
12.4 Typical Sensing Elements 344
12.4.1 Rate Gyros 344,.
12.4.2 Amount Gyros 345
12.4.3 Accelerometers, or Force Pickups 347
12.4.4 Local-Flow Direction Detectors 348
12.4.5 Local-Flow Magnitude Detectors 349
12.4.6 Other Sensors Co~monly Used 351
12.5 Typical Actuating Elements 351
12.6 Equalization and Amplifying Elements 354
12.7 Illustrative Flight Control Systems 356
12.7.1 A Sideslip Stability Augmenter 357
12.7.2 A Two-Axis Control System for a Radio-Controlled
Missile 358
12.8 References 360
13. AUTOMATIC PRODUCTION OF ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
13.1 Introduction 361
13.2 Approaches to Automation by the Electronics Industry 365
13.3 The Stanford Research Institute Study of Automatic Production Techniques 369
13.4 The Sargrove Automatic Machine 383
13.5 General Mills Autofab 385
13.6 The United Shoe Machinery Corporation Dynasert 389
13.7 Project Mini-Mech 394
13.8 The General Electric Automatic Assembly System 399
13.9 Project Tinkertoy 409
13.10 Conclusions 415
13.11 References 417
14. PROCESS CONTROL IN THE PETROLEUM AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES 419
14.1 Introduction 419
14.1.1 Characteristics of the Process Industries 420
14.1.2 Equipment 420
14.1.3 Process Types from the Operational Standpoint 421
14.2 Operational Variables Measured and Controlled 422
14.2.1 Definitive Product Variables 424
14.3 Single-Variable Control Systems 425
14.3.1 Cascade Control Systems 427
14.3.2 Coordinated Control Systems 429
14.3.3 Supervisory Control Systems 431
14.3.4 Computer Control Systems 432
14.4 Servo Techniques to Evaluate the Dynamic Characteristics of
Process Equipment 434
14.5 Recent Developments in Pneumatic Control Systems 439
14.5.1 Electronic Control Systems 441
14.5.2 Graphic Panels 444
14.5.3 Data-Handling Equipment 445
14.6 Continuous Composition Analyzers 447
14.6.1 Continuous Quality Analyzers 451
14.7 Review and Conclusions 453
14.8 References 454
15. ANALOG COMPUTERS IN INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
15.1 Introduction 456
15.2 Examples of Use of Analog Computers in Designing Industrial
Control Systems 458
15.2.1 Steel Mill Tandem Cold-Rolling Mill Controls 459
15.2.2 Magamp Generator Voltage Regulator System for Turbine
Generators, Waterwheel Generators, and Synchronous
Condensers 469
15.2.3 Tin Reflow Line 473
15.3 Computer Functions in Industrial Cop.trols 475
15.3.1 Protective Relaying for Electrical Power Systems 476
15.3.2 Typical Speed Control System 479
15.3.3 Economic Dispatch Computer for Power System Manual
or Automatic Control 480
15.4 Use of Simulation Computers 484
15.4.1 Transient Performance of Potential Devices and HighSpeed Relays 484
15.4.2 Generator-Simulator for Voltage Regulator Testing 489
15.4.3 Wind Tunnel Machine Simulator for Control Supervision 490
15.5 References 493
16. DIGITAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS 494
16.1 Basic Considerations 494
16.1.1 The Economic Aims of Numerical Control 494
16.1.2 Interrelation of Control Functions 495
16.1.3 Position and Contour Control 495
16.2 A Simple Positioning Control 496
16.2.1 Requirements 496
16.2.2 Solution 497
16.2.3 Example of Automatic Drilling Machine 498
16.3 Contour Control 500
16.3.1 General Methods of Control 500
16.3.2 Mechanizations 502
16.3.3 The Problem of Measurement 504
16.3.4 Actuators 507
16.3.5 The MIT Numerically Controlled Milling Machine 508
16.4 Programming 510
16.4.1 Calculation of Cutter Path 511
16.4.2 Coding for the Machine 512
16.4.3 Economic and Other Benefits of Computer Programming 513
16.5 References 514
17. MANUFACTURING AUTOMATION 515
17.1 Introduction 515
17.2 Automation as a Basic Philosophy 517
17.4 Areas of Application 520
17.5 Automation in Manufacture 529
17.6 Types of Automation Systems 530
17.7 Quality and Feedback Considerations 536
17.8 Design of Products and Automatic Assembly 538
17.9 Engineering and Management 541
17.10 The Future 545
17.11 References 546
18. ECONOMICS OF PLANT AUTOMATION
18.1 Introduction 547
18.2 The Growth of Automation 549
18.3 Economic Benefits 553
. 18.4 Deterrents to Automation 555
18.5 Incentives to Automation 559
18.6 Appraisal of Automation 560
18.7 Prospects for Future Automation 563
18.8 Impact on Management 565
18.9 Social Impact 571
xix
547
19. THE FUTURE OF AUTOMATION 576
19.1 General Predictions 576
19.2 Characteristics of Automation Systems 578
19.3 Similarity of Military Electronics and Automation Systems 578
19.4 Military Electronics 579
19.4.1 The Black-Box Approach 579
19.4.2 Systems Integration 581
19.4.3 Weapons Systems Concept 583
19.4.4 Summary 585
19.5 Carry-over from Military Electronics to Automation in Business and Industry 586
19.6 Appraisal of Systems Approach 590
19.7 Building-Block Approach to Automation 591
19.8 Operations Research in Automation 594
19.9 Conclusions 595
INDEX 597
